Oecophylla

Oecophylla Temporal range: 48.6–0 Ma K Pa Eo Ol Mi Pl Eocene – Recent
Oecophylla smaragdina
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Hymenoptera
Family:	Formicidae
Subfamily:	Formicinae
Tribe:	Oecophyllini
Genus:	Oecophylla Smith, F., 1860
Type species
Formica virescens (junior synonym of Oecophylla smaragdina)
Diversity
15 species 16 fossil species (Species Checklist, Species by Country) Oecophylla smaragdina Specimen Label
Synonyms
Camponotites Dlussky

Evolutionary Relationships

Formicinae Myrmelachistini   (2 genera) Lasiini   (11 genera) Melophorini   (9 genera) Formicini   (8 genera) Gesomyrmex   (7 species) Oecophylla   (15 species) Plagiolepidini   (9 genera) Gigantiops, Myrmoteras, Santschiella Camponotini   (8 genera)

Based on Ward et al. 2016.

Hita Garcia, Wiesel and Fischer (2013) - Two species of “weaver ants” are known: one from the Oriental and Indo-Australian regions and another that is found in the Afrotropics. The “red tree ant”, Oecophylla longinoda occurs in the latter region and is spread throughout the whole of sub-Saharan Africa (Weber, 1949c). Despite the large popularity of the genus (Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990), its taxonomy is in a very disappointing condition since it has not yet benefited from a modern taxonomic revision. Both species together contain 12 subspecies (Bolton, 2012), and it is unclear whether some of these merit species status or should just be regarded as junior synonyms. O. longinoda is one of the most well-studied ants from the Afrotropical region (Hölldobler & Lumsden, 1980; Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990). It is one of the dominant species in African forest canopies and is especially known for its “weaver ant” ability to bind tree leaves into nest compartments with silk spun by larvae (Hölldobler & Lumsden, 1980). A single colony can have more than 500,000 individuals and build hundreds of nests, in several trees, that are aggressively defended against other conspecific colonies and other ants (Hölldobler, 1979; Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990). These ants are predacious they and hunt large insect prey, not only in the canopy but also in the surrounding vegetation or on the ground. Oecophylla also tend honeydew-producing insects to supplement their diet (Weber, 1949c; Hölldobler & Lumsden, 1980).

Photo Gallery

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  The highly visual workers of Oecophylla are especially aware of their surroundings. (Photo by Steve Shattuck.)

Identification

See images of species within this genus

Keys including this Genus

• Key to Australian Genera of Formicinae

 

Distribution

Species by Region

Number of species within biogeographic regions, along with the total number of species for each region.

	Afrotropical Region	Australasian Region	Indo-Australian Region	Malagasy Region	Nearctic Region	Neotropical Region	Oriental Region	Palaearctic Region
Species	9	1	6	0	0	0	1	1
Total Species	2837	1734	3036	929	832	4375	1686	2823

Fossils

Fossils are known from: Baltic amber (Bartonian, Middle to Late Eocene), Bembridge Marls, Isle of Wight, UK (Priabonian, Late Eocene), Bitterfeld amber (Bartonian, Middle to Late Eocene), Bournemouth, Dorset, U.K. (Bartonian, Middle Eocene), Brunstatt, Haut-Rhin, France (Early Oligocene), Eckfeld, Germany (Lutetian, Middle Eocene), Kleinkems, Germany (Early Oligocene), Klondike Formation, Republic, Washington, United States (Lutetian, Middle Eocene), Mfwangano Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya (Early Miocene), Malyi Kamyshlak, Kerch, Crimea, Russian Federation (Middle Miocene), Messel, Germany (Lutetian, Middle Eocene), Montagne d'Andance, Saint-Bauzile, Ardèche, France (Early Turolian, Late Miocene), Radoboj, Croatia (Burdigalian, Early Miocene), Sicilian amber, Italy (Late/Upper Miocene), Vishnevaya Balka Creek, Stavropol, Russian Federation (Middle Miocene).

Biology

There is a webpage with a list of some recent publications about weaver ants. You can also read an overview of their biology from the a chapter in The Ants: The Weaver Ants (Hölldobler and Wilson 1990).

Crozier et al. (2010) give a comprehensive synthesis of the biology of this genus, with only two species that are ecologically dominant over large parts of three continents.

Oecophylla smaragdina is also a popular food in Thailand (see Human Culture and Ants).

Association with Other Organisms

All Associate Records for Genus

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Taxon	Relationship	Associate Type	Associate Taxon	Associate Relationship	Locality	Source	Notes
Oecophylla longinoda	host	encyrtid wasp	Anagyrus lopezi	parasite		Universal Chalcidoidea Database	associate
Oecophylla longinoda	host	fungus	Akanthomyces gracilis	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla longinoda	host	fungus	Ophiocordyceps unilateralis	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla longinoda	host	fungus	Stilbella burmensis	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla longinoda	host	fungus	Stilbum burmense	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla smaragdina	associate (details unknown)	encyrtid wasp	Anagyrus lopezi	associate (details unknown)		Quevillon, 2018
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	chalcid wasp	Smicromorpha doddi	parasite		Universal Chalcidoidea Database	primary host
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	chalcid wasp	Smicromorpha keralensis	parasite		Universal Chalcidoidea Database	primary host
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	chalcid wasp	Smicromorpha lagynos	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	chalcid wasp	Smicromorpha masneri	parasite		Universal Chalcidoidea Database	associate, primary host
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	chalcid wasp	Smicromorpha minera	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	encyrtid wasp	Paraphaenodiscus udayveeri	parasite		Universal Chalcidoidea Database	associate
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	fungus	Beauveria bassiana	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission within nest
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	fungus	Ophiocordyceps oecophyllae	pathogen		Araujo et al., 2018
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	fungus	Stilbella spp.	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla smaragdina	prey	tiger beetle	Cicindela duponti	predator	Western Ghats, India	Sinu et al., 2006

Life History Traits

• Mean colony size: 48000, but up to >500000 (Greer et al., 2021)
• Compound colony type: not parasitic (Greer et al., 2021)
• Nest site: arboreal (Greer et al., 2021)
• Diet class: omnivore (Greer et al., 2021)
• Foraging stratum: subterranean/leaf litter; arboreal (Greer et al., 2021)
• Foraging behaviour: cooperative (Greer et al., 2021)

Morphology

Worker Morphology

• Antennal segment count: 12 • Antennal club: absent-gradual, weak • Palp formula: 5,4 • Total dental count: 9-16 • Spur formula: 0, 0 • Eyes: >100 ommatidia • Pronotal Spines: absent • Mesonotal Spines: absent • Propodeal Spines: absent • Petiolar Spines: absent • Caste: trimorphic • Sting: absent • Metaplural Gland: absent • Cocoon: absent

Karyotype

All Karyotype Records for Genus

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Taxon	Haploid	Diploid	Karyotype	Locality	Source	Notes
Oecophylla longinoda	12				Crozier, 1970b
Oecophylla smaragdina		16	16M	India	Imai et al., 1984
Oecophylla smaragdina	8			Malaysia	Crozier, 1970b

Nomenclature

The following information is derived from Barry Bolton's Online Catalogue of the Ants of the World.

• OECOPHYLLA [Formicinae: Oecophyllini]
  • Oecophylla Smith, F. 1860b: 101. Type-species: Formica virescens (junior synonym of Formica smaragdina), by subsequent designation of Bingham, 1903: 310.
  • Oecophylla as senior synonym of †Camponotites Dlussky: Perfilieva, et al. 2017: 399 (in text) [by implication as type-species of †Camponotites Dlussky transferred to Oecophylla].
• †CAMPONOTITES [junior homonym of †Camponotites Steinbach; junior synonym of Oecophylla]
  • †Camponotites Dlussky, 1981b: 76. Type-species: †Camponotites macropterus Dlussky, 1981b: 76, by monotypy.
  • Taxonomic history
  • †Camponotites incertae sedis in Formicidae: Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990: 18; Dlussky & Rasnitsyn, 2002: 418; in Formicinae, Camponotini: Bolton, 1994: 50; Bolton, 1995b: 83; Bolton, 2003: 112.
  • †Camponotites as junior homonym and junior synonym of †Camponotites Steinbach: Dlussky, et al. 2011: 451.
  • †Camponotites as junior synonym of Oecophylla: Perfilieva, et al. 2017: 399 (in text) [by implication as type-species of †Camponotites Dlussky transferred to Oecophylla].

References

• Agosti, D. 1991. Revision of the oriental ant genus Cladomyrma, with an outline of the higher classification of the Formicinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Syst. Entomol. 16: 293-310. (page 295, Oecophylla in Formicinae, Oecophylla genus group)
• Arnold, G. 1922. A monograph of the Formicidae of South Africa. Part V. Myrmicinae. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 14: 579-674 (page 608, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Ashmead, W. H. 1905c. A skeleton of a new arrangement of the families, subfamilies, tribes and genera of the ants, or the superfamily Formicoidea. Can. Entomol. 37: 381-384 (page 384, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Barden, P. 2017. Fossil ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): ancient diversity and the rise of modern lineages. Myrmecological News 24: 1-30.
• Barden, P., Engel, M.S. 2020. Fossil social insects. Encyclopedia of Social Insects, Springer, Cham (doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90306-4_45-1).
• Bingham, C. T. 1903. The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Hymenoptera, Vol. II. Ants and Cuckoo-wasps. London: Taylor and Francis, 506 pp. (page 310, Type-species: Formica virescens (junior synonym of Oecophylla smargdina), by subsequent designation)
• Bolton, B. 2003. Synopsis and Classification of Formicidae. Mem. Am. Entomol. Inst. 71: 370pp (page 110, Oecophylla in Formicinae, Oecophyllini)
• Boudinot, B.E., Borowiec, M.L., Prebus, M.M. 2022. Phylogeny, evolution, and classification of the ant genus Lasius, the tribe Lasiini and the subfamily Formicinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Systematic Entomology 47, 113-151 (doi:10.1111/syen.12522).
• Brassard, F., Leong, C.-M., Chan, H.-H., Guénard, B. 2021. High diversity in urban areas: How comprehensive sampling reveals high ant species richness within one of the most urbanized regions of the world. Diversity 13, 358 (doi:10.3390/d13080358).
• Burchill, A.T., Moreau, C.S. 2016. Colony size evolution in ants: macroevolutionary trends. Insectes Sociaux 63, 291–298 (doi:10.1007/s00040-016-0465-3).
• Cantone S. 2018. Winged Ants, The queen. Dichotomous key to genera of winged female ants in the World. The Wings of Ants: morphological and systematic relationships (self-published).
• Crozier RH, Newey PS, Schlüns EA & Robson SKA 2009. A masterpiece of evolution – Oecophylla weaver ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Myrmecological News 13: 57 – 71.
• Dalla Torre, K. W. von. 1893. Catalogus Hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus. Vol. 7. Formicidae (Heterogyna). Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 289 pp. (page 176, Oecophylla in Camponotinae)
• de Bekker, C., Will, I., Das, B., Adams, R.M.M. 2018. The ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and their parasites: effects of parasitic manipulations and host responses on ant behavioral ecology. Myrmecological News 28: 1-24 (doi:10.25849/myrmecol.news_028:001).
• Emery, C. 1895l. Die Gattung Dorylus Fab. und die systematische Eintheilung der Formiciden. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. Geogr. Biol. Tiere 8: 685-778 (page 772, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Emery, C. 1925d. Hymenoptera. Fam. Formicidae. Subfam. Formicinae. Genera Insectorum 183: 1-302 (page 50, Oecophylla in Formicinae, Oecophyllini)
• Forel, A. 1878c. Études myrmécologiques en 1878 (première partie) avec l'anatomie du gésier des fourmis. Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat. 15: 337-392 (page 361, Oecophylla in Camponotinae [Camponotidae])
• Forel, A. 1912j. Formicides néotropiques. Part VI. 5me sous-famille Camponotinae Forel. Mém. Soc. Entomol. Belg. 20: 59-92 (page 89, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Forel, A. 1917. Cadre synoptique actuel de la faune universelle des fourmis. Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat. 51: 229-253 (page 250, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Greer, J. A., Moreau, C. S. 2021. Phylogenetic analysis and trait evolution of ant cocoons. Insect Systematics & Evolution 53(1), 60–77 (doi:10.1163/1876312x-bja10008).
• Mayr, G. 1862. Myrmecologische Studien. Verh. K-K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien 12: 649-776 (page 651, Oecophylla in Formicinae [Formicidae])
• Mayr, G. 1865. Formicidae. In: Reise der Österreichischen Fregatte "Novara" um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859. Zoologischer Theil. Bd. II. Abt. 1. Wien: K. Gerold's Sohn, 119 pp. (page 7, Oecophylla in Formicinae [Formicidae])
• Mayr, G. 1868c. Die Ameisen des baltischen Bernsteins. Beitr. Naturkd. Preuss. 1: 1-102 (page 30, Oecophylla in Formicinae [Formicidae])
• Perfilieva, K.S., Dubovikoff, D.A. & Dlussky, G.M. 2017. Miocene ants from Crimea. Paleontological Journal 51 (4): 391-401. (Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal 2017 (4): 54-64.)
• Smith, F. 1860b. Catalogue of hymenopterous insects collected by Mr. A. R. Wallace in the islands of Bachian, Kaisaa, Amboyna, Gilolo, and at Dory in New Guinea. J. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool. 5(17b)(suppl. to vol. 4 4: 93-143 (page 101, Oecophylla as genus)
• Waldkircher, G., Webb, M.D., Maschwitz, U. 2004. Description of a new shieldbug (Hemiptera: Plataspidae) and its close association with a species of ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Southeast Asia. Tijdschrift voor Entomologie 147, 21-28.
• Wheeler, W. M. 1910b. Ants: their structure, development and behavior. New York: Columbia University Press, xxv + 663 pp. (page 143, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Wheeler, W. M. 1922i. Ants of the American Museum Congo expedition. A contribution to the myrmecology of Africa. VII. Keys to the genera and subgenera of ants. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 45: 631-710 (page 700, Oecophylla in Formicinae, Oecophyllini)
• Wheeler, W.M. 1915i. The ants of the Baltic Amber. Schriften der Physikalisch-Ökonomischen Gesellschaft zu Königsberg 55: 1-142. (page 113, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)