Oecophylla

Oecophylla Temporal range: 48.6–0 Ma K Pa Eo Ol Mi Pl Eocene – Recent
Oecophylla smaragdina
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Hymenoptera
Family:	Formicidae
Subfamily:	Formicinae
Tribe:	Oecophyllini
Genus:	Oecophylla Smith, F., 1860
Type species
Formica virescens (junior synonym of Oecophylla smaragdina)
Diversity
15 species 16 fossil species (Species Checklist, Species by Country) Oecophylla smaragdina Specimen Label
Synonyms
Camponotites Dlussky

“Weaver ants”, the common name for species of Oecophylla, consists of two Old World species that occupy humid tropical to subtropical forests: Oecophylla smaragdina in southeast Asia from northern India through Queensland, Australia, and Oecophylla longinoda in the Afrotropics (Lokkers 1986; Wetterer 2017a, 2017b). Both species are canopy dwellers, where they form multiple nests per colony across multiple trees, with a single queen in the main nest. A single colony can have more than 500,000 individuals and build hundreds of nests, in several trees, that are aggressively defended against other conspecific colonies and other ants (Hölldobler, 1979; Hölldobler & Lumsden, 1980; Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990). Nests are made of leaves that workers join using the silk glands of larvae that they hold in their mandibles, hence their common name (Hölldobler and Wilson 1990; Crozier et al. 2010). The ants have long legs suitable for rapid movement from leaf to leaf and a reduced petiole with an elongate, low node, which allows the gaster to be reflexed over the mesosoma, enabling greater agility in moving through treetops by shifting the centre of gravity forwards (Dlussky 1981; Dlussky et al. 2008). Weaver ants are predaceous and hunt large insect prey, not only in the canopy but also in the surrounding vegetation or on the ground. They also tend honeydew-producing insects, sternorrhynchs and auchenorrhynchs (Hemiptera) and lycaenid caterpillars (Lepidoptera), to supplement their diet (Weber, 1949c; Hölldobler & Lumsden, 1980).

Despite the large popularity of the genus (Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990), its taxonomy is in a very disappointing condition since it has not yet benefited from a modern taxonomic revision. Both species together contain 12 subspecies, and it is unclear whether some of these merit species status or should just be regarded as junior synonyms. [Above modified from Hita Garcia, Wiesel and Fischer (2013) and Archibald et al. (2024).]

Photo Gallery

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  The highly visual workers of Oecophylla are especially aware of their surroundings. (Photo by Steve Shattuck.)

Identification

See images of species within this genus

Keys including this Genus

• Key to Australian Genera of Formicinae

 

Distribution

Species by Region

Number of species within biogeographic regions, along with the total number of species for each region.

	Afrotropical Region	Australasian Region	Indo-Australian Region	Malagasy Region	Nearctic Region	Neotropical Region	Oriental Region	Palaearctic Region
Species	9	1	6	0	0	0	1	1
Total Species	2841	1736	3045	932	835	4379	1741	2862

Fossils

Fossils are known from: Baltic amber, Baltic Sea region, Europe (Bartonian, Middle to Late Eocene), Bembridge Marls, Isle of Wight, UK (Priabonian, Late Eocene), Bitterfeld amber, Baltic Sea region, Europe (Bartonian, Middle to Late Eocene), Bournemouth, Dorset, U.K. (Bartonian, Middle Eocene), Brunstatt, Haut-Rhin, France (Early Oligocene), Eckfeld, Germany (Lutetian, Middle Eocene), Kleinkems, Germany (Early Oligocene), Klondike Formation, Republic, Washington, United States (Lutetian, Middle Eocene), Mfwangano Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya (Early Miocene), Malyi Kamyshlak, Kerch, Crimea, Russian Federation (Middle Miocene), Messel, Germany (Lutetian, Middle Eocene), Montagne d'Andance, Saint-Bauzile, Ardèche, France (Early Turolian, Late Miocene), Radoboj, Croatia (Burdigalian, Early Miocene), Sicilian amber, Italy (Late/Upper Miocene), Tallahatta Formation, Mississippi, United States (Lutetian, Middle Eocene), Vishnevaya Balka Creek, Stavropol, Russian Federation (Middle Miocene).

Biology

There is a webpage with a list of some recent publications about weaver ants. You can also read an overview of their biology from the a chapter in The Ants: The Weaver Ants (Hölldobler and Wilson 1990).

Crozier et al. (2010) give a comprehensive synthesis of the biology of this genus, with only two species that are ecologically dominant over large parts of three continents.

Oecophylla smaragdina is also a popular food in Thailand (see Human Culture and Ants).

Association with Other Organisms

All Associate Records for Genus

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Taxon	Relationship	Associate Type	Associate Taxon	Associate Relationship	Locality	Source	Notes
Oecophylla longinoda	host	encyrtid wasp	Anagyrus lopezi	parasite		Universal Chalcidoidea Database	associate
Oecophylla longinoda	host	fungus	Akanthomyces gracilis	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla longinoda	host	fungus	Ophiocordyceps unilateralis	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla longinoda	host	fungus	Stilbella burmensis	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla longinoda	host	fungus	Stilbum burmense	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla smaragdina	associate (details unknown)	encyrtid wasp	Anagyrus lopezi	associate (details unknown)		Quevillon, 2018
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	chalcid wasp	Smicromorpha doddi	parasite		Universal Chalcidoidea Database	primary host
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	chalcid wasp	Smicromorpha keralensis	parasite		Universal Chalcidoidea Database	primary host
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	chalcid wasp	Smicromorpha lagynos	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	chalcid wasp	Smicromorpha masneri	parasite		Universal Chalcidoidea Database	associate, primary host
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	chalcid wasp	Smicromorpha minera	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	encyrtid wasp	Paraphaenodiscus udayveeri	parasite		Universal Chalcidoidea Database	associate
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	fungus	Beauveria bassiana	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission within nest
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	fungus	Ophiocordyceps oecophyllae	pathogen		Araujo et al., 2018
Oecophylla smaragdina	host	fungus	Stilbella spp.	parasitoid		Quevillon, 2018	encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Oecophylla smaragdina	prey	tiger beetle	Cicindela duponti	predator	Western Ghats, India	Sinu et al., 2006

Life History Traits

• Mean colony size: 48000, but up to >500000 (Greer et al., 2021)
• Compound colony type: not parasitic (Greer et al., 2021)
• Nest site: arboreal (Greer et al., 2021)
• Diet class: omnivore (Greer et al., 2021)
• Foraging stratum: subterranean/leaf litter; arboreal (Greer et al., 2021)
• Foraging behaviour: cooperative (Greer et al., 2021)

Morphology

Worker Morphology

 Explore: Show all Worker Morphology data or Search these data. See also a list of all data tables or learn how data is managed.

• Antennal segment count: 12 • Antennal club: absent-gradual, weak • Palp formula: 5,4 • Total dental count: 9-16 • Spur formula: 0, 0 • Eyes: >100 ommatidia • Scrobes: absent • Pronotal Spines: absent • Mesonotal Spines: absent • Propodeal Spines: absent • Petiolar Spines: absent • Caste: trimorphic • Sting: absent • Metaplural Gland: absent • Cocoon: absent

Karyotype

All Karyotype Records for Genus

• See additional details at the Ant Chromosome Database.

 Explore: Show all Karyotype data or Search these data. See also a list of all data tables or learn how data is managed.

Click here to show/hide karyotype data.

Taxon	Haploid	Diploid	Karyotype	Locality	Source	Notes
Oecophylla longinoda	12				Crozier, 1970b
Oecophylla smaragdina		16	16M	India	Imai et al., 1984
Oecophylla smaragdina	8			Malaysia	Crozier, 1970b

Phylogeny

Formicinae

Myrmelachistini ⊞(2 genera) ⊟ Brachymyrmex  (41 species, 0 fossil species) Myrmelachista  (69 species, 0 fossil species) Lasiini ⊞(11 genera) ⊟ Cladomyrma  (13 species, 0 fossil species) Lasius  (140 species, 23 fossil species) Myrmecocystus  (31 species, 0 fossil species) Metalasius  (1 species, 1 fossil species) Paraparatrechina  (42 species, 0 fossil species) Prenolepis  (21 species, 1 fossil species) Zatania  (6 species, 1 fossil species) Nylanderia  (149 species, 2 fossil species) Pseudolasius  (66 species, 0 fossil species) Euprenolepis  (8 species, 0 fossil species) Paratrechina  (5 species, 0 fossil species) Melophorini ⊞(9 genera) ⊟ Melophorus  (92 species, 0 fossil species) Stigmacros  (39 species, 0 fossil species) Myrmecorhynchus  (3 species, 1 fossil species) Lasiophanes  (6 species, 0 fossil species) Notostigma  (2 species, 0 fossil species) Notoncus  (6 species, 0 fossil species) Pseudonotoncus  (2 species, 0 fossil species) Prolasius  (19 species, 0 fossil species) Teratomyrmex  (3 species, 0 fossil species) Formicini ⊞(8 genera) ⊟ Polyergus  (15 species, 0 fossil species) Formica  (283 species, 69 fossil species) Iberoformica  (1 species, 0 fossil species) Bajcaridris  (3 species, 0 fossil species) Proformica  (33 species, 0 fossil species) Cataglyphis  (124 species, 0 fossil species) Rossomyrmex  (4 species, 0 fossil species) Gesomyrmecini Gesomyrmex  (7 species, 12 fossil species) Oecophyllini Oecophylla  (15 species, 16 fossil species) Plagiolepidini ⊞(9 genera) ⊟ Anoplolepis  (15 species, 0 fossil species) Tapinolepis  (18 species, 0 fossil species) Aphomomyrmex  (1 species, 0 fossil species) Petalomyrmex  (1 species, 0 fossil species) Lepisiota  (147 species, 0 fossil species) Plagiolepis  (78 species, 10 fossil species) Acropyga  (42 species, 1 fossil species) Agraulomyrmex  (3 species, 0 fossil species) Gigantiopini Gigantiops  (1 species, 0 fossil species) Santschiellini Santschiella  (1 species, 0 fossil species) Myrmoteratini Myrmoteras  (41 species, 0 fossil species) Camponotini ⊞(8 genera) ⊟ Colobopsis  (117 species, 1 fossil species) Opisthopsis  (20 species, 0 fossil species) Dinomyrmex  (2 species, 0 fossil species) Polyrhachis  (793 species, 1 fossil species) Camponotus  (1,504 species, 29 fossil species) Overbeckia  (3 species, 0 fossil species) Calomyrmex  (14 species, 0 fossil species) Echinopla  (39 species, 0 fossil species)

See Phylogeny of Formicinae for details.

Fossil History

Oecophylla has a rich fossil record beginning in the Eocene (Bolton 2003) with 16 described fossil species, summarised and treated in detail by Dlussky et al. (2008), Perfilieva (2015, 2021), and Perfilieva et al. (2017). In the Western Hemisphere, Oecophylla species are known from their oldest occurrences in the mid-Ypresian Okanagan Highlands series of fossil sites at Quilchena, south–central British Columbia, Canada (Coldwater Beds, Quilchena, British Columbia, Canada (Ypresian, Early Eocene)) and at Republic, north–central Washington, United States (Klondike Formation, Republic, Washington, United States (Lutetian, Middle Eocene)) and from the middle Eocene of Mississippi, United States (Tallahatta Formation, Mississippi, United States (Lutetian, Middle Eocene)) (Johnston 1993). Fossil weaver ants have been reported in Europe from the latest Ypresian (Messel, Germany (Lutetian, Middle Eocene); Dlussky et al. 2008) to the Miocene (Radoboj, Croatia (Burdigalian, Early Miocene); Heer 1849), and from the Miocene of Africa (Mfwangano Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya (Early Miocene); Wilson and Taylor 1964).

Nomenclature

The following information is derived from Barry Bolton's Online Catalogue of the Ants of the World.

• OECOPHYLLA [Formicinae: Oecophyllini]
  • Oecophylla Smith, F. 1860b: 101. Type-species: Formica virescens (junior synonym of Formica smaragdina), by subsequent designation of Bingham, 1903: 310.
  • Oecophylla as senior synonym of †Camponotites Dlussky: Perfilieva, et al. 2017: 399 (in text) [by implication as type-species of †Camponotites Dlussky transferred to Oecophylla].
• †CAMPONOTITES [junior homonym of †Camponotites Steinbach; junior synonym of Oecophylla]
  • †Camponotites Dlussky, 1981b: 76. Type-species: †Camponotites macropterus Dlussky, 1981b: 76, by monotypy.
  • Taxonomic history
  • †Camponotites incertae sedis in Formicidae: Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990: 18; Dlussky & Rasnitsyn, 2002: 418; in Formicinae, Camponotini: Bolton, 1994: 50; Bolton, 1995b: 83; Bolton, 2003: 112.
  • †Camponotites as junior homonym and junior synonym of †Camponotites Steinbach: Dlussky, et al. 2011: 451.
  • †Camponotites as junior synonym of Oecophylla: Perfilieva, et al. 2017: 399 (in text) [by implication as type-species of †Camponotites Dlussky transferred to Oecophylla].

References

• Agosti, D. 1991. Revision of the oriental ant genus Cladomyrma, with an outline of the higher classification of the Formicinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Syst. Entomol. 16: 293-310. (page 295, Oecophylla in Formicinae, Oecophylla genus group)
• Archibald, S.B., Mathewes, R.W., Perfilieva, K.S. 2024. Fossil weaver ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Oecophyllini) of the early Eocene Okanagan Highlands of far-western North America. The Canadian Entomologist 156, e2, 1–16 (doi:10.4039/tce.2023.27).
• Arnold, G. 1922. A monograph of the Formicidae of South Africa. Part V. Myrmicinae. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 14: 579-674 (page 608, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Ashmead, W. H. 1905c. A skeleton of a new arrangement of the families, subfamilies, tribes and genera of the ants, or the superfamily Formicoidea. Can. Entomol. 37: 381-384 (page 384, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Barden, P. 2017. Fossil ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): ancient diversity and the rise of modern lineages. Myrmecological News 24: 1-30.
• Barden, P., Engel, M.S. 2020. Fossil social insects. Encyclopedia of Social Insects, Springer, Cham (doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90306-4_45-1).
• Bingham, C. T. 1903. The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Hymenoptera, Vol. II. Ants and Cuckoo-wasps. London: Taylor and Francis, 506 pp. (page 310, Type-species: Formica virescens (junior synonym of Oecophylla smargdina), by subsequent designation)
• Bolton, B. 2003. Synopsis and Classification of Formicidae. Mem. Am. Entomol. Inst. 71: 370pp (page 110, Oecophylla in Formicinae, Oecophyllini)
• Boudinot, B.E., Borowiec, M.L., Prebus, M.M. 2022. Phylogeny, evolution, and classification of the ant genus Lasius, the tribe Lasiini and the subfamily Formicinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Systematic Entomology 47, 113-151 (doi:10.1111/syen.12522).
• Brassard, F., Leong, C.-M., Chan, H.-H., Guénard, B. 2021. High diversity in urban areas: How comprehensive sampling reveals high ant species richness within one of the most urbanized regions of the world. Diversity 13, 358 (doi:10.3390/d13080358).
• Burchill, A.T., Moreau, C.S. 2016. Colony size evolution in ants: macroevolutionary trends. Insectes Sociaux 63, 291–298 (doi:10.1007/s00040-016-0465-3).
• Cantone S. 2018. Winged Ants, The queen. Dichotomous key to genera of winged female ants in the World. The Wings of Ants: morphological and systematic relationships (self-published).
• Crozier RH, Newey PS, Schlüns EA & Robson SKA 2009. A masterpiece of evolution – Oecophylla weaver ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Myrmecological News 13: 57 – 71.
• Dalla Torre, K. W. von. 1893. Catalogus Hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus. Vol. 7. Formicidae (Heterogyna). Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 289 pp. (page 176, Oecophylla in Camponotinae)
• de Bekker, C., Will, I., Das, B., Adams, R.M.M. 2018. The ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and their parasites: effects of parasitic manipulations and host responses on ant behavioral ecology. Myrmecological News 28: 1-24 (doi:10.25849/myrmecol.news_028:001).
• Emery, C. 1895l. Die Gattung Dorylus Fab. und die systematische Eintheilung der Formiciden. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. Geogr. Biol. Tiere 8: 685-778 (page 772, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Emery, C. 1925d. Hymenoptera. Fam. Formicidae. Subfam. Formicinae. Genera Insectorum 183: 1-302 (page 50, Oecophylla in Formicinae, Oecophyllini)
• Forel, A. 1878c. Études myrmécologiques en 1878 (première partie) avec l'anatomie du gésier des fourmis. Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat. 15: 337-392 (page 361, Oecophylla in Camponotinae [Camponotidae])
• Forel, A. 1912j. Formicides néotropiques. Part VI. 5me sous-famille Camponotinae Forel. Mém. Soc. Entomol. Belg. 20: 59-92 (page 89, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Forel, A. 1917. Cadre synoptique actuel de la faune universelle des fourmis. Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat. 51: 229-253 (page 250, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Greer, J. A., Moreau, C. S. 2021. Phylogenetic analysis and trait evolution of ant cocoons. Insect Systematics & Evolution 53(1), 60–77 (doi:10.1163/1876312x-bja10008).
• Mayr, G. 1862. Myrmecologische Studien. Verh. K-K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien 12: 649-776 (page 651, Oecophylla in Formicinae [Formicidae])
• Mayr, G. 1865. Formicidae. In: Reise der Österreichischen Fregatte "Novara" um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859. Zoologischer Theil. Bd. II. Abt. 1. Wien: K. Gerold's Sohn, 119 pp. (page 7, Oecophylla in Formicinae [Formicidae])
• Mayr, G. 1868c. Die Ameisen des baltischen Bernsteins. Beitr. Naturkd. Preuss. 1: 1-102 (page 30, Oecophylla in Formicinae [Formicidae])
• Perfilieva, K.S., Dubovikoff, D.A. & Dlussky, G.M. 2017. Miocene ants from Crimea. Paleontological Journal 51 (4): 391-401. (Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal 2017 (4): 54-64.)
• Smith, F. 1860b. Catalogue of hymenopterous insects collected by Mr. A. R. Wallace in the islands of Bachian, Kaisaa, Amboyna, Gilolo, and at Dory in New Guinea. J. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool. 5(17b)(suppl. to vol. 4 4: 93-143 (page 101, Oecophylla as genus)
• Waldkircher, G., Webb, M.D., Maschwitz, U. 2004. Description of a new shieldbug (Hemiptera: Plataspidae) and its close association with a species of ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Southeast Asia. Tijdschrift voor Entomologie 147, 21-28.
• Wheeler, W. M. 1910b. Ants: their structure, development and behavior. New York: Columbia University Press, xxv + 663 pp. (page 143, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)
• Wheeler, W. M. 1922i. Ants of the American Museum Congo expedition. A contribution to the myrmecology of Africa. VII. Keys to the genera and subgenera of ants. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 45: 631-710 (page 700, Oecophylla in Formicinae, Oecophyllini)
• Wheeler, W.M. 1915i. The ants of the Baltic Amber. Schriften der Physikalisch-Ökonomischen Gesellschaft zu Königsberg 55: 1-142. (page 113, Oecophylla in Camponotinae, Oecophyllini)