Pachycondyla

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Pachycondyla
Temporal range: 48.6–0 Ma Eocene – Recent
Pachycondyla crassinoda
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Ponerinae
Tribe: Ponerini
Alliance: Pachycondyla genus group
Genus: Pachycondyla
Smith, F., 1858
Type species
Formica crassinoda, now Pachycondyla crassinoda
Diversity
18 species
19 fossil species
(Species Checklist, Species by Country)

Pachycondyla crassinoda casent0217556 p 1 high.jpg

Pachycondyla crassinoda casent0217556 d 1 high.jpg

Specimen Labels

Pachycondyla has been the focus of the greatest taxonomic confusion within Ponerinae, and was previously considered the senior synonym of numerous genera which are now considered distinct. Pachycondyla is in reality a small Neotropical genus (less than 20 described species) that is closely related to Dinoponera. Relatively little is known about its habits.

Identification

Schmidt and Shattuck (2014) - Pachycondyla workers are fairly generalized and lack any obvious autapomorphies, making their diagnosis more complicated than for most ponerine genera. They can most easily be identified by the following combination of characters: mandibles triangular, anterior clypeal margin without projecting teeth, metanotal groove at most present as a faint suture, propodeal spiracles slit-shaped, metapleural gland orifice with a posterior U-shaped cuticular lip, arolia not prominent, tarsal claws unarmed, petiole a thick block-like node, stridulitrum absent from pretergite of A4, and hypopygium with a row of stout spines on either side of the sting. Pachycondyla is most likely to be confused with Dinoponera, Neoponera, Ectomomyrmex, or Bothroponera, but Pachycondyla differs from Dinoponera in its smaller size, triangular mandibles, unarmed clypeal margin and tarsal claws, and block-like petiole; from Neoponera in its lack of a stridulitrum on the pretergite of A4 and by its hypopygial spines; from Ectomomyrmex in its complex metapleural gland orifice and hypopygial spines; and from Bothroponera in its hypopygial spines.

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Keys including this Genus

 

Keys to Species in this Genus

Distribution

The range of Pachycondyla extends from the southern United States (Louisiana and Texas) to northern Argentina, and includes some islands of the Caribbean (Kempf, 1961). Pachycondyla harpax covers most of the range of the genus, but most other Pachycondyla species have a much more restricted range.

Distribution and Richness based on AntMaps

Species by Region

Number of species within biogeographic regions, along with the total number of species for each region.

Afrotropical Region Australasian Region Indo-Australian Region Malagasy Region Nearctic Region Neotropical Region Oriental Region Palaearctic Region
Species 0 0 3 1 1 14 0 1
Total Species 2841 1736 3045 932 835 4379 1741 2862

Fossils

Fossils are known from: Aix-en-Provence, France (Late Oligocene), Baltic amber, Baltic Sea region, Europe (Bartonian, Middle to Late Eocene), Bitterfeld amber, Baltic Sea region, Europe (Bartonian, Middle to Late Eocene), Bolshaya Svetlovodnaya, Sikhote-Alin, Russia (Priabonian, Late Eocene), Brunstatt, Haut-Rhin, France (Early Oligocene), Danish-Scandinavian amber (Bartonian, Middle to Late Eocene), Green River Formation, Colorado, United States (Lutetian, Middle Eocene), Kleinkems, Germany (Early Oligocene), Messel, Germany (Lutetian, Middle Eocene), Rovno amber, Baltic Sea region, Europe (Priabonian, Late Eocene), Shanwang, China (Early Miocene).

Biology

Relatively little is known about the ecology and behavior of Pachycondyla. Longino (2013) reports that Pachycondyla harpax and Pachycondyla impressa forage on the forest floor and are never observed foraging arboreally. They are presumably generalist predators and scavengers, though published accounts of their food preferences are scant. Wheeler (1900b) reported that P. harpax workers in captivity would feed on egg yolk and sugar but ignored termites, Overal (1987) stated that P. harpax eats soft-bodied insects (including termites) and myriapods, and Garcia-Pérez et al. (1997) observed P. harpax preying predominantly on termites. Pachycondyla striata will readily harvest and consume fruits and the arils of seeds from the forest floor, though it is unknown if this behavior occurs in other members of the genus (Pizo & Oliveira, 1998, 2001; Passos & Oliveira, 2002, 2003, 2004; Raimundo et al., 2004). Nestmates are apparently recruited to food sources via tandem running (observed in P. harpax and P. impressa; S. Levings, pers. comm. cited in Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990).

When reported, nests are constructed in the ground (P. harpax and P. impressa; Wheeler, 1900b; Overal, 1987; Longino, 2013) or in soil collected in the crowns of palms (P. harpax; Overal, 1987). Mating occurs via typical nuptial flights (P. harpax: Longino, 2013; P. impressa: Ortius & Lechner, 1997). Wheeler (1900b) reported on egg production by workers of P. harpax, which he interpreted as being ergatoid queens but which are more likely just normal workers laying haploid eggs, as is common in Ponerinae. The mandibular, Dufour’s and venom gland secretions of P. striata were studied by Morgan et al. (1999, 2003; the mandibular gland of this species was also studied by Tomotake et al., 1992, and Mathias et al., 1995), the ovaries and corpora allata of P. striata queens and workers were compared by Thiele & Mathias (1999) and Figueira & Mathias (2002), respectively, the fat body of P. striata queens was studied by Thiele & Mathias (2003), and the structure of the venom gland in P. striata was described by Ortiz & Mathias (2003, 2006). Overal (1987) observed that P. harpax produces a foamy defensive secretion from the tip of the abdomen, similar to the behavior exhibited by Pseudoneoponera. P. harpax also injects venom from the sting, and Orivel & Déjean (2001) measured the toxicity of this species’ venom.

Association with Other Organisms

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Species Uncertain

  • An unknown species is a host for the fungus Ophiocordyceps australis (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • An unknown species is a host for the fungus Ophiocordyceps kniphofioides (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • An unknown species is a host for the fungus Ophiocordyceps subramanianii (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • An unknown species is a host for the phorid fly Pseudacteon sp. (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).

All Associate Records for Genus

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Taxon Relationship Associate Type Associate Taxon Associate Relationship Locality Source Notes
Pachycondyla crassinoda host eucharitid wasp Kapala cuprea parasite Myers, 1931:276
Pachycondyla crassinoda host eucharitid wasp Kapala cuprea parasite Universal Chalcidoidea Database primary host
Pachycondyla crassinoda host fungus Ophiocordyceps australis pathogen Sanjuan et al., 2015; Shrestha et al., 2017
Pachycondyla crassinoda host phorid fly Apocephalus catholicus parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla crassinoda host phorid fly Apocephalus catholicus parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla crassinoda host phorid fly Apocephalus densepilosus parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla crassinoda host phorid fly Apocephalus densepilosus parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla crassinoda host phorid fly Apocephalus paraponerae parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla crassinoda host phorid fly Apocephalus trifidus parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla crassinoda host phorid fly Apocephalus trifidus parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla fuscoatra host nematode Mermithidae (unspecified "Mermix") parasite Neotropics Wheeler, 1928; Laciny, 2021
Pachycondyla harpax host eucharitid wasp Kapala atrata parasitoid Quevillon, 2018 multiple encounter modes; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Pachycondyla harpax host eucharitid wasp Kapala sp. parasitoid Quevillon, 2018 multiple encounter modes; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Pachycondyla harpax host fungus Ophiocordyceps evansii pathogen Sanjuan et al., 2015; Shrestha et al., 2017
Pachycondyla harpax host phorid fly Apocephalus catholicus parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla harpax host phorid fly Apocephalus catholicus parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla harpax host phorid fly Apocephalus eurydomus parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla harpax host phorid fly Apocephalus sp. parasite Wheeler and Wheeler, 1952
Pachycondyla harpax host phorid fly Apocephalus sp. parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla harpax host phorid fly Cataclinusa pachycondylae kleptoparasite Quevillon, 2018
Pachycondyla harpax host phorid fly Metopina pachycondylae parasite Wheeler and Wheeler, 1952;
Pachycondyla harpax xenobiont ant Camponotus festinatus xenobiont United States Kanizsai et al., 2013; Wheeler, 1901 At road. Under stone.
Pachycondyla harpax xenobiont ant Camponotus sansabeanus xenobiont United States Kanizsai et al., 2013; Wheeler, 1901
Pachycondyla harpax xenobiont ant Monomorium minimum xenobiont United States Kanizsai et al., 2013; Wheeler, 1901
Pachycondyla impressa host fungus Ophiocordyceps australis parasitoid Quevillon, 2018 encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Pachycondyla impressa host fungus Ophiocordyceps evansii pathogen Sanjuan et al., 2015; Shrestha et al., 2017
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Apocephalus catholicus parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Apocephalus catholicus parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Apocephalus collatus parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Apocephalus collatus parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Apocephalus constrictus parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Apocephalus contortiventris parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Apocephalus crassilatus parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Apocephalus crassilatus parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Apocephalus latinsulosus parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Apocephalus latinsulosus parasite phorid.net attacked
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Megaselia sp. parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla impressa host phorid fly Megaselia sp. parasitoid Quevillon, 2018 encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest
Pachycondyla striata host fungus Ophiocordyceps australis pathogen Shrestha et al., 2017
Pachycondyla striata host nematode Mermithidae (Mermithidae (unspecified "Mermis") parasite Paraguay Strelnikov, 1928; Laciny, 2021
Pachycondyla striata host phorid fly Apocephalus piliventris parasite Brown et al., 2015 injured
Pachycondyla striata host phorid fly Apocephalus piliventris parasite phorid.net attacked

Life History Traits

  • Queen type: winged or dealate
  • Mean colony size: 9-800 (Greer et al., 2021)
  • Compound colony type: not parasitic (Greer et al., 2021)
  • Nest site: hypogaeic (Greer et al., 2021)
  • Diet class: omnivore (Greer et al., 2021)
  • Foraging stratum: subterranean/leaf litter (Greer et al., 2021)
  • Foraging behaviour: cooperative (Greer et al., 2021)

Castes

Morphology

Worker Morphology

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 • Eyes: 11->100 ommatidia • Pronotal Spines: absent • Mesonotal Spines: absent • Propodeal Spines: absent • Petiolar Spines: absent • Caste: none or weak • Sting: present • Metaplural Gland: present • Cocoon: present

Karyotype

All Karyotype Records for Genus

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Taxon Haploid Diploid Karyotype Locality Source Notes
Pachycondyla crassinoda 31 62 22M+40A Brazil Mariano et al., 2006c; Mariano et al., 2007; Mariano et al., 2015
Pachycondyla harpax 90 16M+74A Brazil Velasco et al., 2014
Pachycondyla harpax 92 16M+76A Brazil Velasco et al., 2014
Pachycondyla harpax 48 96 12M+84A Brazil Mariano et al., 2006c; Mariano et al., 2007; Mariano et al., 2015
Pachycondyla impressa 94 8M+86A Brazil Mariano et al., 2012; Mariano et al., 2015
Pachycondyla striata 52 104 4M+100A Brazil Mariano et al., 2007; Mariano et al., 2015

The karyotypes listed as belonging to two unidentified Pachycondyla species by Goni et al. (1982) and Imai et al. (1983), both from Malaysia, are not Pachycondyla species and their taxonomic placement is unclear.

Phylogeny

Ponerinae

Platythyrea  (40 species, 6 fossil species)

Pachycondyla group
⊞(show genera)
⊟
Ponera group
⊞(show genera)
⊟

Harpegnathos  (13 species, 0 fossil species)

Hypoponera  (177 species, 1 fossil species)

Plectroctena group
⊞(show genera)
⊟
Odontomachus group
⊞(show taxa)
⊟

See Phylogeny of Ponerinae for details.

Nomenclature

The following information is derived from Barry Bolton's Online Catalogue of the Ants of the World.

  • PACHYCONDYLA [Ponerinae: Ponerini]
    • Pachycondyla Smith, F. 1858b: 105. Type-species: Formica crassinoda, by subsequent designation of Emery, 1901a: 42.

Unless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from the publication that includes the original description.

Description

Schmidt and Shattuck (2014):

Worker

Medium to large (TL 7–20 mm) robust ants with the standard characters of Ponerini. Mandibles triangular, sometimes with a faint basal groove. Anterior margin of clypeus convex and often medially emarginate. Frontal lobes moderately large. Eyes of moderate size and located anterior of head midline. Pronotum often with sharp lateral margins. Mesopleuron variable: fully, partially, or not at all divided by a transverse groove. Metanotal groove absent or at most present as a faint suture. Propodeum broad dorsally. Propodeal spiracles slit-shaped. Metapleural gland orifice with a posterior U-shaped cuticular lip and a lateral depression. Metatibial spur formula (1s, 1p). Petiole with a thick block-like node which widens posteriorly. Gaster with only a weak girdling constriction between pre- and postsclerites of A4. Hypopygium with a row of stout spines on either side of the sting. Head and body densely punctate to striate (rugoreticulate in at least one population of P. harpax), with abundant pilosity and dense pubescence. Color dark brown to black.

Queen

Winged, with ocelli and the other modifications typical of ponerine queens, and slightly larger than the worker, but otherwise very similar to that caste.

Male

See descriptions for individual species in Smith (1858) and Santschi (1921).

Larva

Described for individual species by Wheeler & Wheeler (1952).

References

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