Acromyrmex octospinosus

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Acromyrmex octospinosus
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Myrmicinae
Tribe: Attini
Genus: Acromyrmex
Species: A. octospinosus
Binomial name
Acromyrmex octospinosus
(Reich, 1793)

Acromyrmex octospinosus psw7796-21 profile 1.jpg

Acromyrmex octospinosus psw7796-21 dorsal 1.jpg

Specimen labels

Synonyms

Acromyrmex octospinosus is a host species of the social parasite Acromyrmex insinuator. Note that the taxonomic status of this species was recently revised by Mera-Rodríguez et al. (2024).

At a Glance • Highly invasive  

Identification

Median pronotal spines usually present and distinct, occasionally reduced or absent; head tapering behind eyes; head width less than or equal to 1.7 mm.

Distribution

Latitudinal Distribution Pattern

Latitudinal Range: 23.133° to -14.81°.

 
North
Temperate 		North
Subtropical 		Tropical South
Subtropical 		South
Temperate

Distribution based on Regional Taxon Lists

Neotropical Region: Brazil, Costa Rica (type locality), Cuba (type locality), Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana (type locality), Greater Antilles, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico (type locality), Nicaragua, Panama, Peru (type locality), Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela.

Distribution based on AntMaps

AntMapLegend.png

Distribution based on AntWeb specimens

Check data from AntWeb

Countries Occupied

Number of countries occupied by this species based on AntWiki Regional Taxon Lists. In general, fewer countries occupied indicates a narrower range, while more countries indicates a more widespread species.
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Estimated Abundance

Relative abundance based on number of AntMaps records per species (this species within the purple bar). Fewer records (to the left) indicates a less abundant/encountered species while more records (to the right) indicates more abundant/encountered species.
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Biology

Explore-icon.png Explore Fungus Growing 
For additional details see Fungus growing ants.

A handful of ant species (approx. 275 out of the known 15,000 species) have developed the ability to cultivate fungus within their nests. In most species the fungus is used as the sole food source for the larvae and is an important resource for the adults as well. Additionally, in a limited number of cases, the fungus is used to construct part of the nest structure but is not as a food source.

These fungus-feeding species are limited to North and South America, extending from the pine barrens of New Jersey, United States, in the north (Trachymyrmex septentrionalis) to the cold deserts in Argentina in the south (several species of Acromyrmex). Species that use fungi in nest construction are known from Europe and Africa (a few species in the genera Crematogaster, Lasius).


The details of fungal cultivation are rich and complex. First, a wide variety of materials are used as substrate for fungus cultivating. The so-called lower genera include species that prefer dead vegetation, seeds, flowers, fruits, insect corpses, and feces, which are collected in the vicinity of their nests. The higher genera include non leaf-cutting species that collect mostly fallen leaflets, fruit, and flowers, as well as the leafcutters that collect fresh leaves from shrubs and trees. Second, while the majority of fungi that are farmed by fungus-feeding ants belong to the family Lepiotaceae, mostly the genera Leucoagaricus and Leucocoprinus, other fungi are also involved. Some species utilise fungi in the family Tricholomataceae while a few others cultivate yeast. The fungi used by the higher genera no longer produce spores. Their fungi produce nutritious and swollen hyphal tips (gongylidia) that grow in bundles called staphylae, to specifically feed the ants. Finally, colony size varies tremendously among these ants. Lower taxa mostly live in inconspicuous nests with 100–1000 individuals and relatively small fungus gardens. Higher taxa, in contrast, live in colonies made of 5–10 million ants that live and work within hundreds of interconnected fungus-bearing chambers in huge subterranean nests. Some colonies are so large, they can be seen from satellite photos, measuring up to 600 m3.

Based on these habits, and taking phylogenetic information into consideration, these ants can be divided into six biologically distinct agricultural systems (with a list of genera involved in each category):

Nest Construction

A limited number of species that use fungi in the construction of their nests.

Lower Agriculture

Practiced by species in the majority of fungus-feeding genera, including those thought to retain more primitive features, which cultivate a wide range of fungal species in the tribe Leucocoprineae.

Coral Fungus Agriculture

Practiced by species in the Apterostigma pilosum species-group, which cultivate fungi within the Pterulaceae.

Yeast Agriculture

Practiced by species within the Cyphomyrmex rimosus species-group, which cultivate a distinct clade of leucocoprineaceous fungi derived from the lower attine fungi.

Generalized Higher Agriculture

Practiced by species in several genera of non-leaf-cutting "higher attine" ants, which cultivate a distinct clade of leucocoprineaceous fungi separately derived from the lower attine fungi.

Leaf-Cutter Agriculture

A subdivision of higher attine agriculture practiced by species within several ecologically dominant genera, which cultivate a single highly derived species of higher attine fungus.

Note that the farming habits of Mycetagroicus (4 species) are unknown. Also, while species of Pseudoatta (2 species) are closely related to the fungus-feeding genus Acromyrmex, they are social parasites, living in the nests of their hosts and are not actively involved in fungus growing. ‎

Boulogne et al. (2018) - Acromyrmex octospinosus causes serious damage to fields crops, pastures and plantations due to their foraging activities for its symbiotic fungus cultivation (Pérez et al 2011). Estimated damage was, for example, several million dollars per year in USA and Brazil (Cameron & Riggs 1985). A. octospinosus is native to South and Central America and exotic to Guadeloupe. This species was introduced in Guadeloupe in 1954 and progressively colonized the entire territory (Boulogne et al 2014), causing ongoing damage in both agricultural and protected areas. The 1995 cyclone favored ant invasion in natural areas where some plant species, such as the endemic arborescent ferns of the genus Cyathea, are now threatened and might completely disappear (Boulogne et al 2014). The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) classifies this ant among the most serious pests of tropical and subtropical America (Pollard 1982).

Fernandez- Marin et al. (2003) - Incipient nests of Acromyrmex octospinosus have only 3-7 workers.

Nehring et al. (2015) - This species is parastized by queens of Acromyrmex insinuator.

Weber (1958) - The springtail species Cyphoderus inaequalis Folsom (Lepidocyrtidae: Cyphoderinae) is known from nests of this ant.

Wetterer (1993) - Acromyrmex volcanus is common in mature wet forest on the Atlantic slope of Costa Rica, occurring from sea level to about 1000m elevation. It is one of the most common and conspicuous attines in lowland primary forest, giving way to Atta in second growth and more open habitats.

J.T. Longino - At La Selva Biological Station, A. volcanus workers forage on the ground but nests are arboreal. When I first encountered the species in 1985, I was mystified by the large workers cutting fallen flowers on the forest floor and carrying them up tree trunks. Later, while climbing a tall Pentaclethra tree at La Selva, I was standing in the first major fork, 20m above the forest floor, when Acromyrmex workers suddenly appeared around my feet. I found a basketball-sized nest, with a large fungus garden, embedded in the accumulated canopy soil beneath the epiphyte layer in the fork. Subsequent observations by Wetterer and others have repeatedly confirmed the arboreal nesting habits at La Selva, but at elevations above 500m A. volcanus nests at ground level (Wetterer, pers. comm.). Wetterer (1993) reports quantitative data on the foraging and nesting ecology of A. volcanus at La Selva.

Reproduction

Liberti et al. (2018) studied sperm competition in this species. Queens of A. octospinosus (as A. echinatior) mate with multiple males. An earlier study (Liberti et al. 2016) found that queens produce reproductive tract fluid that enhances sperm motility. This increases the possibility that the subsequently stored sperm is viable. This current study found sperm motility increased when exposed to other male ejaculates. This increased activity was similar to what was observed with exposure to reproductive tract fluid in queens. Liberti et al. concluded "Our results suggest that ant sperm respond via a self–non-self recognition mechanism to similar or shared molecules expressed in the reproductive secretions of both sexes. Lower sperm motility in the presence of own seminal fluid indicates that enhanced motility is costly and may trade-off with sperm viability during sperm storage, consistent with studies in vertebrates. Our results imply that ant spermatozoa have evolved to adjust their energetic expenditure during insemination depending on the perceived level of sperm competition."

Interactions with other organisms

Many organisms use chemicals to deter enemies. Some spiders can modify the composition of their silk to deter predators from climbing onto their webs. The Malaysian golden orb-weaver Nephila antipodiana (Walckenaer) produces silk containing an alkaloid (2-pyrrolidinone) that functions as a defense against ant invasion. Ants avoid silk containing this chemical. In the present study, we test the generality of ants' silk avoidance behavior in the field. We introduced three ant species to the orb webs of Nephila clavipes (Linnaeus) in the tropical rainforest of La Selva, Costa Rica. We found that predatory army ants (Eciton burchellii) as well as non-predatory leaf-cutting ants (Atta cephalotes and A. octospinosus (as Acromyrmex volcanus)) avoided adult N. clavipes silk, suggesting that an additional species within genus Nephila may possess ant-deterring silk. Our field assay also suggests that silk avoidance behavior is found in multiple ant species.

Association with Other Organisms

Explore-icon.png Explore: Show all Associate data or Search these data. See also a list of all data tables or learn how data is managed.
  • This species is a host for the fungus Aspergillus flavus (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (as Acromyrmex echinatior; encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission within nest).
  • This species is a host for the fungus Ophiocordyceps kniphofioides (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • This species is a host for the nematode Steinerema carpocapsae (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (multiple encounter modes; indirect transmission; transmission outside nest).

Life History Traits

  • Mean colony size: 50,000 (Beckers et al., 1989)
  • Foraging behaviour: mass recruiter (Beckers et al., 1989)

Castes

Images from AntWeb

Worker

Acromyrmex echinatior casent0909422 h 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex echinatior casent0909422 d 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex echinatior casent0909422 p 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex echinatior casent0909422 l 1 high.jpg
Paralectotype of Acromyrmex echinatior. Worker. Specimen code casent0909422. Photographer Will Ericson, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences. Owned by MHNG, Geneva, Switzerland.
Acromyrmex echinatior casent0909421 h 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex echinatior casent0909421 p 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex echinatior casent0909421 d 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex echinatior casent0909421 l 1 high.jpg
Lectotype of Atta octospinosa echinatior. Worker (major/soldier). Specimen code casent0909421. Photographer Will Ericson, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences. Owned by MHNG, Geneva, Switzerland.
Acromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001284242 h 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001284242 p 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001284242 d 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001284242 l 1 high.jpg
Worker. Specimen code inbiocri001284242. Photographer Estella Ortega, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences. Owned by JTLC.

Queen

Acromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283113 p 2 high.jpg
Queen (alate/dealate). Specimen code inbiocri001283113. Photographer Estella Ortega, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences. Owned by JTLC.
Acromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283113 h 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283113 p 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283113 d 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283113 l 1 high.jpg
Queen (alate/dealate). Specimen code inbiocri001283113. Photographer Estella Ortega, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences.

Male

Acromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283114 h 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283114 p 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283114 d 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283114 l 1 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283114 p 2 high.jpgAcromyrmex volcanus inbiocri001283114 p 3 high.jpg
Male (alate). Specimen code inbiocri001283114. Photographer Estella Ortega, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences. Owned by JTLC.

Nomenclature

The following information is derived from Barry Bolton's Online Catalogue of the Ants of the World.

  • octospinosus. Formica octospinosa Reich, 1793: 132 (w.) FRENCH GUIANA.
    • Type-material: holotype (?) worker.
    • [Note: no indication of number of specimens is given.]
    • Type-locality: French Guiana: Cayenne (Le Blond).
    • Type-depository: unknown (no material known to exist).
    • [Notes (i): specimen(s) possibly in MNHN as Reich is attributed to the Natural History Society of Paris; (ii) G.C. Reich is not mentioned in Horn & Kahle, 1936, 1937.]
    • Forel, 1893e: 590 (s.q.m.); Wheeler, G.C. 1949: 674 (l.); Wheeler, G.C. & Wheeler, J. 1986d: 496 (l.).
    • Combination in Atta: Emery, 1892b: 163;
    • combination in Atta (Acromyrmex): Forel, 1893e: 590;
    • combination in Acromyrmex: Mann, 1916: 454.
    • Status as species: Forel, 1893e: 590 (redescription); André, 1893b: 152; Dalla Torre, 1893: 153; Emery, 1894c: 220; Forel, 1895b: 139; Forel, 1899c: 34; Forel, 1905b: 157; Emery, 1905c: 44; Wheeler, W.M. 1905b: 130; Forel, 1907e: 2; Forel, 1908b: 42; Forel, 1908e: 69; Forel, 1912e: 181; Wheeler, W.M. 1913b: 495; Santschi, 1913h: 41; Mann, 1916: 454; Wheeler, W.M. 1916d: 326; Crawley, 1916b: 373; Wheeler, W.M. 1922c: 13; Emery, 1924d: 350; Santschi, 1925a: 391 (in key); Borgmeier, 1927c: 134; Wheeler, W.M. 1933a: 63; Wheeler, W.M. 1937c: 15, 69; Santschi, 1939e: 319 (in key); Santschi, 1939f: 166; Weber, 1941b: 125; Weber, 1945: 62; Weber, 1946b: 154; Brown, 1957e: 236; Gonçalves, 1961: 157; Kempf, 1972a: 14; Alayo, 1974: 42; Cherrett & Cherrett, 1989: 51; Bolton, 1995b: 56; Branstetter & Sáenz, 2012: 257; Fernández, et al. 2015: 70 (redescription); Fernández & Serna, 2019: 834.
    • Senior synonym of guentheri: Emery, 1894c: 220; Forel, 1899c: 34, Santschi, 1913h: 41; Emery, 1924d: 350; Borgmeier, 1927c: 134; Gonçalves, 1961: 157; Kempf, 1972a: 14; Bolton, 1995b: 56; Fernández, et al. 2015: 71.
    • Senior synonym of pallida Crawley: Wheeler, W.M. 1937c: 70; Gonçalves, 1961: 157; Kempf, 1972a: 14; Bolton, 1995b: 56; Fernández, et al. 2015: 71.
    • Distribution: Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Mexico, Trinidad, Venezuela.
    • Current subspecies: nominal plus cubanus, ekchuah, inti.
  • cubanus. Acromyrmex octospinosus subsp. cubanus Wheeler, W.M. 1937c: 74 (s.) CUBA.
    • Type-material: 9 syntype workers.
    • Type-localities: 6 workers Cuba: Cojimar (W.M. Wheeler & C.F. Baker) (invalid restriction of type-locality by Kempf, 1972a: 14; no lectotype designated), 3 workers Cuba: Havana (G. Aguayo).
    • Type-depository: MCZC.
    • Subspecies of octospinosus: Kempf, 1972a: 14; Bolton, 1995b: 55.
    • Junior synonym of octospinosus: Mera‐Rodríguez et al. 2024: 12.
    • Distribution: Cuba.
  • ekchuah. Acromyrmex octospinosus subsp. ekchuah Wheeler, W.M. 1937c: 73 (s.) MEXICO (Yucatan).
    • Type-material: syntype workers (number not stated, “numerous”).
    • Type-localities: Mexico: Yucatan, Oxkutzab, Puz Cave (A.S. Pearse) (invalid restriction of type-locality by Kempf, 1972a: 14; no lectotype designated), Mexico: Yucatan, Oxkutzab, Gongora Cave (A.S. Pearse), Yucatan, Oxkutzab, Tiz Cave (A.S. Pearse), Yucatan, Merida, San Bulha Cave (A.S. Pearse), Yucatan, Calcehtok, Xkyc Cave (A.S. Pearse), Yucatan, Tizcacal, Luchil Cave (A.S. Pearse).
    • Type-depository: MCZC.
    • Subspecies of octospinosus: Wheeler, W.M. 1938: 252 (footnote); Kempf, 1972a: 14; Bolton, 1995b: 55.
    • Junior synonym of octospinosus: Mera‐Rodríguez et al. 2024: 12.
    • Distribution: Mexico.
  • inti. Acromyrmex octospinosus subsp. inti Wheeler, W.M. 1937c: 72 (s.) PERU.
    • Type-material: 4 syntype workers.
    • Type-locality: Peru: San Bartolome (C.T. Brues).
    • Type-depository: MCZC.
    • Subspecies of octospinosus: Kempf, 1972a: 14; Bolton, 1995b: 55; Bezděčková, et al. 2015: 114.
    • Junior synonym of octospinosus: Mera‐Rodríguez et al. 2024: 12.
    • Distribution: Peru.
  • echinatior. Atta (Acromyrmex) octospinosa var. echinatior Forel, 1899c: 34 (w.q.) MEXICO (Chihuahua), GUATEMALA, COSTA RICA, PANAMA.
    • Type-material: lectotype worker (by designation of Schultz, Bekkevold & Boomsma, 1998: 461), paralectotype workers (number not stated).
    • Type-locality: lectotype Guatemala: Vera Paz, Senahu, El Reposo, Zapota, 800 ft (Champion); paralectotypes: with same data and from other original syntype localities.
    • [Note: other original syntype localities: Mexico: Chihuahua, Montezuma (Cockerell), Costa Rica: Volcán de Irazu (Rogers), Panama: Volcán de Chiriqui, Bugaba (Champion) (invalid restriction of type-locality by Wheeler, W.M. 1937c: 72 (in text); no lectotype designated).]
    • Type-depository: MHNG.
    • Wheeler, W.M. 1937c: 72 (m.).
    • Combination in Acromyrmex: Emery, 1924d: 350.
    • Junior synonym of octospinosus: Emery, 1905c: 44.
    • Subspecies of octospinosus: Forel, 1912e: 181; Emery, 1924d: 350; Santschi, 1925a: 391 (in key); Wheeler, W.M. 1937c: 71; Wheeler, W.M. 1938: 252; Santschi, 1939e: 319 (in key); Santschi, 1939f: 166 (in key); Weber, 1941b: 125; Kempf, 1972a: 14; Bolton, 1995b: 55.
    • Status as species: Schultz, Bekkevold & Boomsma, 1998: 460; Branstetter & Sáenz, 2012: 257.
    • Junior synonym of octospinosus: Mera‐Rodríguez et al. 2024: 12.
    • Distribution: Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama.
  • volcanus. Acromyrmex octospinosus subsp. volcanus Wheeler, W.M. 1937c: 73 (s.) COSTA RICA.
    • Type-material: 7 syntype workers.
    • Type-locality: Costa Rica: Volcán de Barba, Finca Hamburgo (C.W. Dodge).
    • Type-depository: MCZC.
    • Subspecies of octospinosus: Kempf, 1972a: 14; Bolton, 1995b: 57 (error).
    • Status as species: Wetterer, 1993: 66.
    • Junior synonym of octospinosus: Mera‐Rodríguez et al. 2024: 12.
    • Distribution: Costa Rica.
  • guentheri. Atta (Acromyrmex) guentheri Forel, 1893e: 594 (s.w.q.m.) TRINIDAD, VENEZUELA.
    • Type-material: syntype workers, syntype queens, syntype males (numbers not stated).
    • Type-localities: Trinidad: (no further data) (Günther), Trinidad: (no further data) (F.W. Urich), Venezuela: (no further data) (F. Meinert).
    • Type-depository: MHNG (perhaps also ZMUC).
    • Junior synonym of octospinosus: Emery, 1894c: 220; Forel, 1899c: 34; Santschi, 1913h: 41; Emery, 1924d: 350; Borgmeier, 1927c: 134; Gonçalves, 1961: 157; Kempf, 1972a: 14; Bolton, 1995b: 55; Fernández, et al. 2015: 71.
  • pallida. Acromyrmex octospinosa var. pallida Crawley, 1921: 92 (s.w.) GUYANA.
    • Type-material: syntype workers (number not stated).
    • Type-locality: Guyana (“British Guiana”): Issororo, 1918, no. 422 (Bodkin).
    • Type-depository: BMNH.
    • [Unresolved junior secondary homonym of Oecodoma pallida Smith, F. 1858b: 187 (Bolton, 1995b: 56).]
    • Subspecies of octospinosus: Santschi, 1925a: 359; Santschi, 1939e: 319 (in key); Santschi, 1939f: 166 (in key).
    • Junior synonym of octospinosus: Wheeler, W.M. 1937c: 70; Gonçalves, 1961: 157; Kempf, 1972a: 14; Bolton, 1995b: 56; Fernández, et al. 2015: 71.

Type Material

Atta octospinosa echinatior

  • Schultz et al. (1998) - LECTOTYPE: Major worker. Guatemala: Senahuen Vera Paz, El Reposo, Zapote, 800 ft. (Champion). A. Forel Collection, Muséum d’Histoire naturelle, Geneva, Switzerland. Paratypes examined: 2 minor workers: Guatemala: Senahuen Vera Paz, El Reposo, 800 ft. (Champion). 1 alate and 1 dealate female: Panama: Volcan de Chiriquí, 25–1000 ft. (Champion). 2 alate females: Panama: Bugaba (Champion).

The list of specimens published in Forel’s (1899) description includes two workers, one from Guatemala and one from Costa Rica, the latter now apparently lost. Forel (1899) did not designate a holotype; five pins (seven specimens) in the syntype series bear the designation “type” written in Forel’s hand. Affixed to two of Forel’s syntype pins, one bearing a single major worker, the other bearing two females, are red “Typus” labels, but these may have been added subsequently and at any rate have no formal standing. Wheeler (1937) designated the type locality of A. octospinosus echinatior as Volcan de Chiriquí, Panama, the collection locality of two of Forel’s syntype females, but did not designate a lectotype. We have chosen to ignore this action and to designate the only remaining major worker in Forel’s syntype series as the lectotype for two important reasons: (1) species concepts in Acromyrmex are based entirely upon the characters of major workers and (2) Forel’s syntype females vary in size and collection locality, raising the possibility that they represent multiple species.

Description

Genetics

Acromyrmex octospinosus (as A. echinatior) has had their entire genome sequenced.

Palomeque et al. (2015) found class II mariner elements, a form of transposable elements, in the genome of this ant.

Karyotype

Explore-icon.png Explore: Show all Karyotype data or Search these data. See also a list of all data tables or learn how data is managed.
  • 2n = 38, karyotype = 8M+6SM+14ST+10A (Brazil) (Barros et al., 2016) (as Acromyrmex echinatior).

References

References based on Global Ant Biodiversity Informatics

  • Adams B. J., S. A. Schnitzer, and S. P. Yanoviak. 2019. Connectivity explains local ant community structure in a Neotropical forest canopy: a large-scale experimental approach. Ecology 100(6): e02673.
  • Ahuatzin D. A., E. J. Corro, A. Aguirre Jaimes, J. E. Valenzuela Gonzalez, R. Machado Feitosa, M. Cezar Ribeiro, J. Carlos Lopez Acosta, R. Coates, W. Dattilo. 2019. Forest cover drives leaf litter ant diversity in primary rainforest remnants within human-modified tropical landscapes. Biodiversity and Conservation 28(5): 1091-1107.
  • Alayo D. P. 1974. Introduccion al estudio de los Himenopteros de Cuba. Superfamilia Formicoidea. Academia de Ciencias de Cuba. Instituto de Zoologia. Serie Biologica no.53: 58 pp. La Habana.
  • Amat-G G., M. G. Andrade-C. and F. Fernández. (eds.) 1999. Insectos de Colombia. Volumen II. Bogotá: Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, 433 pp. 131975
  • Bekkevold, D., J. Frydenberg and J.J. Boomsma. 1999. Multiple mating and facultative polygyny in the Panamanian leafcutter ant Acromyrmex echinatior. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 46:103-109.
  • Boer P. 2019. Ants of Curacao, species list. Accessed on January 22 2019 at http://www.nlmieren.nl/websitepages/SPECIES%20LIST%20CURACAO.html
  • Boomsma, J.J. , E.J. Fjerdingstad and J. Frydenberg. 1999. Multiple paternity, relatedness and genetic diversity in Acromyrmex leaf-cutter ants. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (B) 266:249-254.
  • Bustos H., J. 1994. Contribucion al conocimiento de al fauna de hormigas (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) del occidente del Departamento de Narino (Colombia). Bol. Mus. Ent. Univ. Valle 2(1,2):19-30
  • Castano-Meneses, G., M. Vasquez-Bolanos, J. L. Navarrete-Heredia, G. A. Quiroz-Rocha, and I. Alcala-Martinez. 2015. Avances de Formicidae de Mexico. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico.
  • Celini L., V. Roy, J. Delabie, K. Questel, and P. Mora. 2012. Presence et origine d'Acromyrmex octospinosus (Reich, 1793) a Saint-Barthelemy, Petites Antilles (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Attini). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 117(2): 167-172.
  • Dattilo W. et al. 2019. MEXICO ANTS: incidence and abundance along the Nearctic-Neotropical interface. Ecology https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2944
  • de Abreu J. M., and J. H. C. Delabie. 1986. Controle das formigas cortadeiras em plantios de cacau. Revista Theobroma 16(4): 199-211.
  • Del Toro, I., M. Vázquez, W.P. Mackay, P. Rojas and R. Zapata-Mata. Hormigas (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) de Tabasco: explorando la diversidad de la mirmecofauna en las selvas tropicales de baja altitud. Dugesiana 16(1):1-14.
  • Delabie J. H. C., R. Céréghino, S. Groc, A. Dejean, M. Gibernau, B. Corbara, and A. Dejean. 2009. Ants as biological indicators of Wayana Amerindian land use in French Guiana. Comptes Rendus Biologies 332(7): 673-684.
  • Emery C. 1896. Formiche raccolte dal dott. E. Festa nei pressi del golfo di Darien. Bollettino dei Musei di Zoologia ed Anatomia Comparata della Reale Università di Torino 11(229): 1-4.
  • Escalante Gutiérrez J. A. 1993. Especies de hormigas conocidas del Perú (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Revista Peruana de Entomología 34:1-13.
  • Fernandes, P.R. XXXX. Los hormigas del suelo en Mexico: Diversidad, distribucion e importancia (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).
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