Oecophylla smaragdina

Oecophylla smaragdina
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Hymenoptera
Family:	Formicidae
Subfamily:	Formicinae
Tribe:	Oecophyllini
Genus:	Oecophylla
Species:	O. smaragdina
Binomial name
	Oecophylla smaragdina; (Fabricius, 1775) Specimen Label
Subspecies
	Oecophylla smaragdina fuscoides Karavaiev, 1933; Oecophylla smaragdina gracilior Forel, 1911; Oecophylla smaragdina gracillima Emery, 1893; Oecophylla smaragdina selebensis Emery, 1893; Oecophylla smaragdina subnitida Emery, 1892;
Synonyms
	Formica macra Guérin-Méneville, 1831; Formica virescens Fabricius, 1775; Formica viridis Kirby, W., 1819; Formica zonata Guérin-Méneville, 1838;

Aggressive arboreal ants that use larval silk to weave together leaves to form their nesting cavities. A mature colony of Oecophylla smaragdina can entirely dominate a tree (sometimes several) with nests distributed throughout their heavily defended arboreal territory.

Photo Gallery

Foragers gathering honeydew from scale insects. Prachuap Khiri Khan province, Thailand. Photo by Christian Peeters.
Leaf nest woven with larval silk. Prachuap Khiri Khan province, Thailand. Photo by Christian Peeters.
Oecophylla smaragdina worker with Camponotus prey, Murray Falls, Kirrama National Park, Queensland, Australia. Photo by Jordan Dean.
Pleometrotic colony foundation from Kakadu, NT, Australia. The first workers born were small, accentuating the dimorphism in body size relative to queens. Photo by David Maitland.
Males and large workers outside a leaf nest. From Prachuap Khiri Khan province, Thailand. Photo by Christian Peeters.
Oecophylla smargdina attending a Redspot butterfly Larva (Zesius chrysomallus, Lycaenidae). The ants protect the caterpillar from predators while receiving sugary nectar from the dorsal nectar glands of the larva. Photo by Kalesh Sadasivan.
Lycaenid-Ant Interaction: Caterpillars of lycaenid butterflies (in this case Arhopala sp.) have evolved specialized organs that secrete chemicals to feed and appease tending ants. Surla, Goa, India. Photo by Kalesh Sadasivan.
The Lankan Large Oakblue (Arhopala amantes, family Lycaenidae) and the attending ant Oecophylla smaragdina. Photo by Kalesh Sadasivan, April 2022, Trivandrum, Kerala, India.
Oecophylla smaragdina with mimetic spider that was detected and attacked. Photo by Pavan Ramachandra.
A male of the mimetic spider Myrmaplata plataleoides (family Salticidae) from Thailand. Photo by Eric C. Maxwell.

Identification

Separation of Extant *Oecophylla* Species (Wheeler, 1922)
O. longinoda	O. smaragdina
petiole decidedly stouter, more thickened behind, with the stigmata much less prominent when viewed from above, and its ventral surface much more convex anteriorly when viewed in profile	petiole very slender, with the stigmata very prominent when seen from above, and its ventral surface nearly straight or very feebly convex in profile
polymorphism greater, minors differs more from media and majors in shape of thorax and petiole	polymorphism weaker, minors similar to media and majors in shape of thorax and petiole
head of worker distinctly more triangular, being broader behind, with less convex sides	head of worker less triangular, being narrower behind, with more convex sides
eyes distinctly larger	eyes distinctly smaller
mandibles shorter	mandibles longer
clypeus more nearly subcarinata behind, its anterior border sometimes feebly and sinuately emarginate in the middle	clypeus otherwise
pronotum less convex	pronotum more convex
integument not as in O. smaragdina	integument decideldly more opaque, mandibles somewhat more coarsely striated, always darker and concolorous with posterior portion of head, at least in the large workers and especially in dark varieties
transverse furrow on the second and succeeding gastric segments just behind the anterior border less pronounced	transverse furrow more pronounced

Distribution

Wetterer (2017) - The vast majority of O. smaragdina records come from areas with Tropical climates according to the Köppen-Geiger system: rainforest, monsoon, and savanna. However, >250 records come from areas classified on the map as having Subtropical climates, mostly in the Himalayan foothills of India and Nepal, southern China, northern Vietnam, and the southern coast of Queensland, Australia. Almost all these sites are classified as dry winter subtropical climate. A few O. smaragdina sites are classified as having Arid climates, all from warm semi-arid areas.

Latitudinal Distribution Pattern

Latitudinal Range: 32.7009° to -23.91015395°.


North Temperate	North Subtropical	Tropical	South Subtropical	South Temperate

Source: AntMaps

Distribution based on Regional Taxon Lists

Australasian Region: Australia (type locality).
Indo-Australian Region: Borneo, Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Krakatau Islands, Malaysia, New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore.
Oriental Region: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India (type locality), Laos, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand.
Palaearctic Region: China.

Distribution based on AntMaps

Distribution based on AntWeb specimens

Check data from AntWeb

Countries Occupied

Number of countries occupied by this species based on AntWiki Regional Taxon Lists. In general, fewer countries occupied indicates a narrower range, while more countries indicates a more widespread species.

Biology

Oecophylla smaragdina from Bali, Indonesia. Video by Novita Listyani.

There is a webpage with a list of some recent publications about weaver ants. You can also read an overview of their biology from the a chapter in The Ants: The Weaver Ants (Hölldobler and Wilson 1990).

Peeters and Andersen (1989) - A few aggregations of dealate queens were collected in coastal regions of Northern Territory, Australia. Newly mated queens can cooperate to found new colonies, but only one survives in established colonies of 0. smaragdina.

Pinkalski et al. (2015) - Colonies nesting in mango trees (Mangifera indica) in Darwin, Australia were found to deposit significant amounts of nitrogen on their host trees via their waste. This deposition increased when the ants were provided access to additional sucrose resources.

Cooperative retrieval of prey. From Thailand. Photo by Christian Peeters.

Oecophylla smaragdina, together with Anoplolepis gracilipes and Dolichoderus thoracicus, is one of the most common ant species which tends honeydew-producing hemipterans in Indonesia. Fanani et al. (2020) examined the influence of these species on the introduced parasitoid Anagyrus lopezi, a species used to control the invasive cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). They found that when ants were absent the average time spent foraging by individual parasitoids was significantly longer (27.39 minutes) compared to when ants were present (2.47- 4.68 minutes). As a result, parasitoids spent less time in finding hosts and a longer time in handling hosts. This resulted in more oviposition activities and a 2-3 fold increase in parasitism and the number of wasps that emerged from their hosts.

Ethnoentomology

Bhotwate & Kumar (2020) report that selected rural and tribal groups within India mash live workers with salt, red chillies and mustard oil, and eat them with rice. They are reported to prevent gastritis and provide nutritive value.

Association with Other Organisms

Explore: Show all Associate data or Search these data. See also a list of all data tables or learn how data is managed.

Coleoptera

This species is a prey for the tiger beetle Cicindela duponti (a predator) in Western Ghats, India (Sinu et al., 2006).

Hymenoptera

This species is a associate (details unknown) for the encyrtid wasp Anagyrus lopezi (a associate (details unknown)) (Quevillon, 2018).
This species is a host for the chalcid wasp Smicromorpha lagynos (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
This species is a host for the chalcid wasp Smicromorpha minera (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
This species is a host for the chalcid wasp Smicromorpha doddi (a parasite) (Universal Chalcidoidea Database) (primary host).
This species is a host for the chalcid wasp Smicromorpha keralensis (a parasite) (Universal Chalcidoidea Database) (primary host).
This species is a host for the chalcid wasp Smicromorpha masneri (a parasite) (Universal Chalcidoidea Database) (associate, primary host).
This species is a host for the encyrtid wasp Paraphaenodiscus udayveeri (a parasite) (Universal Chalcidoidea Database) (associate).

Fungi

This species is a host for the fungus Ophiocordyceps oecophyllae (a pathogen) (Araujo et al., 2018).
This species is a host for the fungus Beauveria bassiana (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission within nest).
This species is a host for the fungus Stilbella spp. (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).

Life History Traits

Queen number: monogynous (Holldobler & Wilson, 1977; Frumhoff & Ward, 1992)
Queen type: winged (Holldobler & Wilson, 1977; Frumhoff & Ward, 1992) (queenless worker reproduction)

Castes

Liu, C. et al. 2020. Ants of the Hengduan Mountains, Figure 38, Oecophylla smaragdina.

Worker


.	Owned by Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Images from AntWeb


Worker. Specimen code casent0106113. Photographer Michael Branstetter, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences.	Owned by UCDC, Davis, CA, USA.


Worker. Specimen code casent0173646. Photographer April Nobile, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences.	Owned by CAS, San Francisco, CA, USA.


Worker. Specimen code casent0173647. Photographer April Nobile, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences.	Owned by CAS, San Francisco, CA, USA.


Worker. Specimen code casent0173648. Photographer April Nobile, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences.	Owned by CAS, San Francisco, CA, USA.


Worker. Specimen code casent0070232. Photographer April Nobile, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences.	Owned by CAS, San Francisco, CA, USA.

Queen

Images from AntWeb


Queen (alate/dealate). Specimen code casent0173644. Photographer April Nobile, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences.	Owned by CAS, San Francisco, CA, USA.

Nomenclature

The following information is derived from Barry Bolton's Online Catalogue of the Ants of the World.

smaragdina. Formica smaragdina Fabricius, 1775: 828 (q.) INDIA. Jerdon, 1851: 121 (w.m.); Wheeler, G.C. & Wheeler, J. 1953e: 176 (l.); Crozier, 1970: 115 (k.). Combination in Oecophylla: Smith, F. 1860b: 102. Senior synonym of viridis: Smith, F. 1857a: 53; Taylor & Brown, D.R. 1985: 127; of macra, zonata: Roger, 1863b: 10; Dalla Torre, 1893: 176; of virescens: Mayr, 1872: 143; Taylor & Brown, D.R. 1985: 127. Current subspecies: nominal plus fuscoides, gracilior, gracillima, selebensis, subnitida.
virescens. Formica virescens Fabricius, 1775: 392 (w.) AUSTRALIA. Smith, F. 1858b: 30 (m.). Combination in Oecophylla: Smith, F. 1860b: 102. Status as species: Dalla Torre, 1893: 177; Emery, 1921c: 102. Subspecies of smaragdina: Emery, 1887a: 242; Forel, 1915b: 95; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 228 (in key); Emery, 1925b: 52; Karavaiev, 1933a: 315. Junior synonym of smaragdina: Mayr, 1872: 143; Taylor & Brown, D.R. 1985: 127.
viridis. Formica viridis Kirby, W. 1819: 478 (w.) AUSTRALIA. Junior synonym of virescens: Roger, 1863b: 10; Dalla Torre, 1893: 177; Emery, 1925b: 52; of smaragdina: Smith, F. 1857a: 53; Taylor & Brown, D.R. 1985: 127.
macra. Formica macra Guérin-Méneville, 1831, pl. 8, fig. 1 (w.) "Offack". Junior synonym of virescens: Smith, F. 1858b: 29; of smaragdina: Roger, 1863b: 10; Dalla Torre, 1893: 176; Arnold, 1922: 609.
zonata. Formica zonata Guérin-Méneville, 1838: 205 (q.) "Port Praslin". Junior synonym of smaragdina: Roger, 1863b: 10; Dalla Torre, 1893: 176.

Type Material

Formica smaragdina Fabricius, 1775: Syntype, 2 workers, India, India, Zoological Museum of University of Kiel.
Formica virescens Fabricius, 1775: Syntype, 2 workers, Australia (as New Holland), Australia, The Natural History Museum.
Formica viridis Kirby, 1818: Syntype, worker, northern Australia, Australia, The Natural History Museum.

Description

Unless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from Bingham 1903.

Worker

Major - Rusty red, sometimes yellowish red, varying in depth of tint according to locality. Head and thorax not pilose, abdomen with a few short erect hairs, chiefly beneath and along the margins of the segments; pubescence very thin, line and minute, rather whitish in colour; the head, thorax, legs, node of pedicel and abdomen dull, subjopaque. For the rest the characters of the genus.

Length: 9.5 - 11 mm

Minor - Exactly similar, slightly smaller.

Length: 7 - 8 mm

Queen

Characters of the genus. Normally of a beautiful emerald green, with a peculiar pellucid translucent appearance when alive. Varieties are found of a pale yellow, with more or less of brownish markings on the head and thorax, and nine out of every ten specimens preserved in spirit, or dry, change their beautiful emerald-green for a dingy yellow.

Length: 15 - 18 mm

Male

More or less similar in colour to the worker, sometimes dark brown, very pilose, the hairs reddish brown and semierect; wings lacteous, hyaline, nervures yellowish brown. For the rest the characters of the genus.

Length: 6 - 7 mm

Karyotype

See additional details at the Ant Chromosome Database.

Explore: Show all Karyotype data or Search these data. See also a list of all data tables or learn how data is managed.

2n = 16, karyotype = 16M (India) (Imai et al., 1984).
n = 8 (Malaysia) (Crozier, 1970b).

Worker Morphology

Explore: Show all Worker Morphology data or Search these data. See also a list of all data tables or learn how data is managed.

Caste: polymorphic

References

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