Tetraponera

Widespread in the Old World tropics, Tetraponera contains just over 100 taxa, occurring in Africa, Madagascar, India, south-east Asia and Australia. Five species have been described from Baltic amber, and one from Oligocene deposits in France. Although less diverse than its New World counterpart Pseudomyrmex, Tetraponera is nevertheless a conspicuous element of the ant fauna in some regions, especially Madagascar where there are about 30 species (mostly undescribed). Most species are unspecialized arboreal nesters, living in dead twigs, branches, insect bored cavities or domatia of living plants (Ward 1990, 1991). In the latter case these species typically have co-evolved with their hosts and provide protection from herbivores (Ward, 1991).

Identification
Ward (1990):

Worker Monomorphic or (rarely) polymorphic, variable in size (worker HW 0.42-2.25). Basal and masticatory margins of mandibles usually distinct, occasionally meeting at a rather oblique angle; basal margin with 0-2 teeth, proximal tooth always lacking; masticatory margin with 3-6 teeth, usually 3 or 4, subequal in size. Venter of mandible with a single ridge or weak rise, which is continuous and broadly rounded behind the masticatory and basal margins (sometimes this ridge is very reduced). Palp formula: 6,4 in all species, except T. tessmanni where reduced to (4p3.3). Distal margin of labrum usually with a narrow, notch-like cleft; prominent teeth or protuberances sometimes present on the labrum. Anterodorsal surface of median clypeal lobe continuous, non-truncate; anterior margin often toothed or crenulate. Antennae 12-segmented. Median lobes of antennal sclerites rather strongly expanded laterally, covering most of the basal condyles of the antennae (ASI 0.75-1.00). Frontal carinae separated by more than basal scape width (FCI 0.08-0.25). Compound eyes relatively large, width two-thirds or more the length. Number of ocelli: 3, with reductions to 2 and (commonly) 0. Metanotal groove usually distinctly impressed, sometimes preceded by a distinct, flattened, metanotal (or mesoscutellar?) plate. Hind basitarsal sulcus nearly always present, becoming rather reduced in some species and absent in three. Mid basitarsal sulcus less frequently developed. Mid and hind tarsi each with a pair of apical spurs, the anterior spur sometimes very reduced, the posterior spur pectinate. Median connection of spiracular plates (of sting apparatus) membranous.

Queen Deciduously winged (ergatogynes known in one species). Similar in most respects to workers; mandibles often modified, e.g. with a much expanded apicobasal area or basally geniculate. Genal pit often present, just above mandibular insertions. Ocelli (3) always present. Mid and hind basitarsal sulci more prominent than in workers. Forewing typically with two cubital cells; reductions to one cell occur.

Male Basal margin of mandibles two-thirds or more the length of the masticatory margin, the two often meeting at a rounded corner rather than a sharp apico-basal angle; basal margin with 0, rarely 1, teeth; masticatory margin with 2-6 teeth, generally subequal in size (6 teeth occurring only in larger species, with HW ≥ 1.00). Palp formula and labrum as in workers. Anterior margin of clypeus straight to broadly convex, rarely emarginate; clypeal lobe sometimes dorsomedially protuberant. Antennal sclerites often projecting anterodorsally over the frontal triangle; antennal insertions situated relatively close to the posterior margin of the clypeus (separated by less than the maximum diameter of the antennal fossa). Tibial spurs as in workers. Volsella a small, setose, finger-like lobe; in some species even further reduced and fused to the inner wall of the paramere (where it is quite inconspicuous). Internal face of inner valve (aedeagus) lacking a differentiated, plate-like structure which is separated from the dorsal margin. Wing venation as in queen. Antennae in pupa passing laterally on either side of the mandibles.

Species groups
Six species groups have been recognised at Ward (2006).
 * Tetraponera allaborans species group: Africa, Madagascar, India to China, south to northern Australia
 * Tetraponera ambigua species group: Africa, Arabian Peninsula, Madagascar
 * Tetraponera grandidieri species group: Madagascar
 * Tetraponera natalensis species group: Africa, northwestern Madagascar
 * Tetraponera nigra group: Indo-Australian region
 * Tetraponera rufonigra species group: West and central Africa; Indian subcontinent to southeast Asia

Species richness
Species richness by country based on regional taxon lists (countries with darker colours are more species-rich). View Data



Nomenclature

 *  TETRAPONERA [Pseudomyrmecinae]
 * Tetraponera Smith, F. 1852: 44. Type-species: Tetraponera atrata (junior synonym of Eciton nigrum), by subsequent designation of Wheeler, W.M. 1911f: 173.
 * Tetraponera junior synonym of Pseudomyrma: Roger, 1863b: 24; Mayr, 1863: 451.
 * Tetraponera junior synonym of Sima: Dalla Torre, 1893: 53; Bingham, 1903: 107; Emery, 1917a: 95.
 * Tetraponera subgenus of Sima: Emery, 1900d: 673; Emery, 1915b: 266; Emery, 1921f: 24.
 * Tetraponera as genus: Smith, F. 1877b: 68; Donisthorpe, 1916b: 244; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 654; Taylor & Brown, D.R. 1985: 17; Ward, 1990: 470.
 * Tetraponera senior synonym of Sima: Smith, F. 1877b: 68; Donisthorpe, 1916b: 244; Wheeler, W.M. 1920: 47; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 105.
 * Tetraponera senior synonym of Pachysima, Parasima, Sima, Viticicola: Ward, 1990: 470.
 * PACHYSIMA [junior synonym of Tetraponera]
 * Pachysima Emery, 1912b: 97 [as subgenus of Sima]. Type-species: Tetraponera aethiops, by monotypy.
 * Pachysima raised to genus: Wheeler, W.M. 1918c: 308 (footnote); Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 112, 654.
 * Pachysima subgenus of Sima: Emery, 1921f: 22.
 * Pachysima junior synonym of Tetraponera: Ward, 1990: 470.
 * PARASIMA [junior synonym of Tetraponera]
 * Parasima Donisthorpe, 1948d: 592 [as subgenus of Tetraponera]. [Unnecessary replacement name for Sima in the sense of Emery, 1921f: 23.]
 * Parasima junior synonym of Tetraponera: Ward, 1990: 470.
 * SIMA [junior synonym of Tetraponera]
 * Sima Roger, 1863a: 178. Type-species: Sima compressa (junior synonym of Pseudomyrma allaborans), by monotypy.
 * [Type-species not Eciton rufonigrum, unjustified subsequent designation by Emery, 1915b: 266, repeated in Emery, 1917a: 95 Emery, 1921f: 22.]
 * Sima revived status as genus: Dalla Torre, 1893: 53; Emery, 1917a: 95; Forel, 1917: 240; Emery, 1921f: 21.
 * Sima junior synonym of Tetraponera: Smith, F. 1877b: 68; Donisthorpe, 1916b: 244; Wheeler, W.M. 1920: 47; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 105; Ward, 1990: 470.
 * VITICICOLA [junior synonym of Tetraponera]
 * Viticicola Wheeler, W.M. 1919i: 130. Type-species: Sima tessmanni, by original designation.
 * Viticicola junior synonym of Tetraponera: Ward, 1990: 470.
 * [ Viticola Donisthorpe, 1943g: 735, incorrect subsequent spelling.]